Introduction

The transient nature of military life presents unique challenges for children and families, particularly in navigating frequent school transitions.¹ These moves can disrupt academic progress, social relationships, and a child’s sense of belonging, all of which are critical for well-being. Concurrently, a robust body of literature highlights the disproportionate impact of bullying on African American youth, which is often compounded by systemic factors and racial bias within educational institutions.² This paper synthesizes scholarly literature to explore the intersection of these two critical issues, with a specific focus on Dr. Geisha Glass-Abdullah’s 2022 correlational study on military family mobility and Invitational Education (IE) qualities of schools. We will examine how the principles of IE, particularly the I-CORT framework, can serve as a powerful tool to foster a positive school climate that mitigates the negative effects of mobility and addresses the specific challenges of bullying for African American children, youth, and teens.

Correlational Study of Military Family Mobility and Invitational Education Qualities of Schools

Glass-Abdullah’s (2022) correlational study of Military Family Mobility and Invitational Education Qualities of Schools,” sought to quantitatively examine if family mobility predicted military parents’ perceptions of the five Invitational Education qualities in public schools. Military families typically experience a permanent change of station every three years, forcing their children to enroll in new schools repeatedly.³ This study was prompted by a recognized lack of current data and literature concerning the experiences of these highly mobile families.

Using a non-probability sampling method and a survey distributed via social media, the study analyzed responses from 52 participants. The results of the analysis, which utilized multiple regressions, indicated no statistically significant relationship between family mobility and parents’ perceptions of the IE qualities of public schools. Despite this finding, the study revealed that the participants held a favorable perception of the IE qualities of U.S. public schools, independent of the mobility variable. This suggests that while mobility itself may not directly predict perceived school climate, the presence of positive, inviting qualities is a distinct and valued experience for military families.

Scholarly Literature on Bullying and African American Youth

Scholarly literature, including a review by Albdour and Krouse (2014), has found that African American adolescents have a higher prevalence of bullying and victimization compared to other populations.⁴ Bullying among African American youth is often rooted in complex factors, including intra-racial bullying and the insidious effects of systemic racism. Bully can manifest in various ways that directly impact the physical health of African American youth and teens (Glass-Abdullah, 2025).

A review of research on school bullying among African American youth, from an ecological systems analysis, highlights how societal and cultural factors, such as negative stereotypes and peer influence, can increase bullying behavior. Researchers have found that African American youth who are perceived as troublemakers by teachers may resort to stereotypical behaviors to gain respect, which can lead to bullying. This is further exacerbated by the fact that implicit bias among educators can lead to more frequent and harsher disciplinary actions against African American students, creating an “uninviting experience” that contributes to their marginalization.⁵

I-CORT: Invitational Education and the Improvement of Educational Settings

Invitational Education (IE), as a theory and practice, is founded on the belief that every individual is valuable and capable. The principles are applied through the I-CORT framework, which stands for Intentional – Caring, Optimistic, Respectful, and Trusting (Glass-Abdullah, 2022). This approach can profoundly benefit the educational settings of African American children, youth, and teens, particularly in addressing the challenges of bullying and systemic inequities.

In Invitational Education Theory, developed by William Purkey and John Novak, the term intentionality refers to the conscious and purposeful effort to create a welcoming and encouraging environment. It is one of the five core elements of the theory, alongside Care, Optimism, Respect, and Trust (I-CORT).

Intentionality is the deliberate act of designing and implementing people, places, policies, programs, and processes to foster human potential. An invitation, in this context, is defined as an “intentional act designed to offer something beneficial for consideration.” The theory distinguishes between four levels of functioning, with intentionality as a key differentiator:

• Intentionally Inviting: A deliberate and consistent effort to make people feel welcome and valued. This is the highest level of functioning.
• Unintentionally Inviting: Actions that are positive and welcoming but lack conscious thought or consistency.
• Unintentionally Disinviting: Well-intentioned actions that, due to a lack of awareness, accidentally discourage or demean others.
• Intentionally Disinviting: The purposeful and deliberate act of being unwelcoming, disrespectful, or harmful. This is the most toxic level.

Essentially, intentionality is what moves a school or organization from simply being a pleasant place to a place that actively and consistently promotes the growth and development of every individual within it. It is the “Intentional” application of the theory’s principles to ensure that every aspect of the environment sends a clear message that all individuals are able, valuable, and responsible.

1. Caring: Invitational Education emphasizes building intentionally caring relationships between all members of the school community—students, teachers, and staff. For African American children who may experience racial bias or a lack of cultural understanding, a caring environment signals that they are seen and valued. This can counteract the emotional distress and isolation caused by bullying and discrimination, fostering a sense of psychological safety that is crucial for learning.
2. Optimistic: An optimistic school environment conveys a belief in the potential of every student. This is particularly vital for African American children and teens who are often subjected to lower academic expectations and disproportionately harsh discipline. By creating an atmosphere of high expectations and support, an IE approach can combat the self-fulfilling prophecy of underachievement and empower students to reach their full potential.
3. Respectful: A respectful educational setting honors the unique cultural backgrounds, experiences, and identities of every student. This aligns with the concept of culturally responsive teaching, which uses a student’s cultural knowledge and life experiences to make learning more relevant and effective. This approach directly challenges the anti-Black biases that can lead to bullying and marginalization, creating a more inclusive and equitable classroom for African American youth.
4. Trusting: Trust is the foundation of a healthy school climate. For African American children and their families, a trusting relationship with the school can be difficult to establish due to historical and ongoing inequities. An IE approach works to build this trust by engaging parents as equal partners, ensuring transparent and fair disciplinary practices, and creating a safe space for open communication. This reduces the risk of students turning inward or engaging in unhealthy coping mechanisms when faced with bullying.

By intentionally implementing the I-CORT framework, as championed by Dr. Glass-Abdullah, schools and daycare programs can create an environment that not only lessens the negative impacts of mobility but also directly confronts the systemic issues that contribute to bullying among African American youth. This holistic approach focuses on the well-being of the whole child, building a foundation of resilience and empowerment that extends far beyond the classroom.

Conclusion

While Glass-Abdullah’s correlational study did not find a direct link between family mobility and perceived Invitational Education qualities, her research underscores the importance of intentional efforts to create a positive school climate. When combined with scholarly research on bullying and its impact on African American youth, a clear picture emerges: a trusting and inclusive school environment is not merely a “nice to have,” but a critical component of academic and emotional success. The application of the I-CORT framework offers a tangible path for educators to build a culture of care, combat systemic inequities, and create educational settings where all children, particularly African American children, can feel invited to learn, grow, and thrive (Glass-Abdullah, 2025). Future research should explore the specific long-term benefits of Invitational Education in mitigating the psychological effects of bullying and fostering a more equitable and supportive learning environment for all students.

References

Albdour, M., & Krouse, H. J. (2014). Bullying and victimization among African American adolescents: A literature review. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 27(2), 68–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcap.12066

Glass-Abdullah, G. (2022). Correlational study of military family mobility and invitational education qualities of schools[Doctoral dissertation, Capella University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Glass-Abdullah, G. (2025, September 4). Unmasking the silent struggle: How bullying fuels childhood obesity, and how empathy can heal. Children and Youth Education Center. https://childrenandyoutheducationcenter.com/2025/09/04/unmasking-the-silent-struggle-how-bullying-fuels-childhood-obesity-and-how-empathy-can-heal/
Purkey, W. W., & Novak, J. M. (2016). Fundamentals of invitational education (2nd ed.). International Alliance for Invitational Education.